Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research
Editor In Chief Kangle Ding Professor College of Chemistry and Environmental Yangtze University PR China ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9400-1930 Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research is an open access peer-reviewed journal from the publishers of Scientific Research and Community (SRC) which publishes articles in the form of written, video and power-point presentations from the arena of Earth and Environmental Science Research. The journal focuses to build up accessing the complete content of articles freely from online for reader’s perusal. Articles accepts in the form of research, review, analysis, magazines, editorials, opinion, communications, mini-review, short communications, picturized, book review, video type and power point presentations (PPTS). Call for Paper: Special Issue on Flood Tragedy 2026: Causes, Impacts, Response and Recovery Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research focuses on the increasing occurrence and severity of catastrophic floods, with particular emphasis on the 2026 Nepal flood tragedy and flood-related hazards across the Himalayan and other vulnerable regions. It aims to bring together multidisciplinary research examining the causes, environmental and societal impacts, emergency response, disaster risk reduction, and long-term recovery associated with extreme flood events. The Special Issue welcomes scientific contributions investigating the interaction between climate change, extreme precipitation, glacier and snow dynamics, landslides, river systems, land-use change, infrastructure vulnerability, and human exposure. Recent research in Nepal has highlighted the importance of incorporating climate-change projections into flood-risk assessment, while studies have also demonstrated increasing concern over compound flood and landslide hazards Articles can be submitted through online from https://srcpublishers.com/earth-environmental-sciences-res/user/register or can send through an e-mail with attachment for earthsciences@onlinescientificresearch.info (or) jeesr@onlinescientificresearch.net 2.03 Impact Factor 84.5% Citations 65% Acceptance
Facing the 2026 “Godzilla” El Niño: Readiness, Risk Mitigation, and Multi-Stakeholder Resilience of Independent Oil Palm Small holders in Indonesia
Indonesia’s independent oil palm smallholders are increasingly exposed to climatic shocks while simultaneously facing structural constraints in productivity, finance, farm management, market access, organization, and sustainability compliance. The strengthening 2026 El Niño therefore constitutes more than a temporary meteorological disturbance; it represents a systemic stress test for smallholder resilience. This qualitative literature review synthesizes recent peer-reviewed evidence on oil palm physiology, drought and ENSO impacts, smallholder livelihoods, agronomic management, peat and fire risks, climate services, certification, and institutional support. The review finds that smallholder readiness is highly heterogeneous and should be assessed across six interacting dimensions: climate-information, biophysical-agronomic, fire-environmental, economic-financial, household-livelihood, and institutional governance readiness. Severe rainfall deficits and high atmospheric water demand may initiate cascading effects from soil-water stress and reproductive disruption to lagged fresh fruit bunch losses, reduced household cash flow, underinvestment in inputs, and declining future productivity. Fire hazards can further transform farm-level vulnerability into landscape-scale environmental and social risk. The article argues that resilience requires a portfolio of anticipatory measures rather than a single technological intervention. Priority actions include actionable climate services, soil-water conservation, strategic nutrient and harvest management, community fire prevention, climate-contingent finance, strengthened farmer organizations, and coordinated government–private-sector support. A sequenced framework spanning anticipation, impact management, recovery, and transformation is proposed to protect both smallholder livelihoods and the long-term sustainability of Indonesia’s palm oil sector.
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research
Fullerene Formation in the Planetary Nebula Tc1: Constraints from JWST Mid-Infrared Imaging
We analyse mid-infrared imaging observations of the planetary nebula Tc 1 obtained with the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) aboard the James Webb Space Telescope, with the aim of constraining the spatial distribution and formation conditions of fullerene molecules (C60). The data reveal a non spherical nebular morphology characterized by concentric shells, filamentary structures, and a pronounced asymmetric feature. The emission attributed to C60 is not uniformly distributed, but is instead confined to localized regions within the nebula. Using the wavelength dependence of the observed emission, we estimate that the fullerene-rich regions correspond to intermediate dust temperatures in the range T ∼ 200–350 K. This suggests that fullerene formation requires a restricted thermal environment, with sufficient energy to restructure carbonaceous material while avoiding destruction of the closed cage structure. The spatial confinement of the emission further indicates that local physical conditions, including radiation field intensity and shock-driven processing, play a dominant role. We interpret these results within a curvature-driven framework in which fullerenes form through the transformation of quasi-planar carbon networks. The introduction of pentagonal defects into a hexagonal lattice induces positive curvature, leading to the formation of stable closed cages. The JWST observations of Tc 1 are consistent with this mechanism, linking the molecular structure of C60 to the dynamical and thermal properties of the nebula. These findings provide observational constraints on fullerene formation in evolved stellar environments and highlight the role of localized processes in governing complex carbon chemistry.
Rebalancing Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): A Development-Just Framework for Palm Oil and the Global South
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is indispensable for identifying environmental hotspots, improving production systems, and supporting credible climate action. Yet its results are never independent of choices about system boundaries, data, allocation, temporal horizons, land-use history, and responsibility. This article develops a qualitative literature review of how those choices can distribute burdens and benefits unevenly between the Global North and the Global South, using Indonesian palm oil as an analytically revealing case. The review synthesizes recent scholarship on LCA methodology, life cycle sustainability assessment, climate justice, carbon accounting, palm-oil production, certification, and smallholder livelihoods. It finds that current practice can become development-blind when global databases inadequately represent tropical systems, historical land-use emissions are applied without contextual differentiation, producer-country mitigation is absorbed into downstream claims, and social or developmental functions are treated as external to the assessment. The article does not argue for weaker environmental standards or preferential treatment for palm oil. Instead, it proposes a Development-Just LCA framework built on procedural co-governance, local data sovereignty, geographical and temporal representativeness, symmetric system boundaries, transparent uncertainty, coherent treatment of national and product claims, distributional incidence reporting, and safeguards for the right to development. Applied to Indonesian palm oil, the framework would distinguish expansion from replanting, recognize methane avoidance and productivity improvement, and reduce disproportionate compliance burdens on smallholders. A fairer LCA would improve scientific credibility, policy legitimacy, and environmental effectiveness by making global sustainability assessment more representative, contestable, and accountable.
Integrating Labor Education into Medicinal Chemistry in Higher Vocational Education: A Curriculum Reform at Qingdao Technical College
Background: In higher vocational biopharmaceutical education, Medicinal Chemistry is both a bridge between basic chemistry, pharmaceutical preparation, and pharmaceutical analysis and an important vehicle for cultivating responsibility for drug quality and disciplined professional work habits. The course nevertheless faces several persistent problems: broad content coverage within limited contact hours, insufficient practice-based learning, weak representation of authentic occupational processes, and difficulty translating the values of labor education into observable and assessable behaviors. Methods: Taking the 2024 Medicinal Chemistry curriculum standard for the Biopharmaceutical Technology program at Qingdao Technical College as the institutional basis, this curriculum-design study employed policy and curriculum-text analysis, a review of relevant scholarship, occupational-task logic analysis, and curriculum mapping. The relationships among learning outcomes, teaching content, learning activities, and assessment evidence were systematically reconstructed. No unverified student achievement or teaching-effectiveness data were used. Results: A four-chain alignment framework was developed to connect the occupational-task chain, knowledge–competence chain, professional work practice chain, and assessment-evidence chain. Drug-class content was reorganized into five task domains: structural interpretation and information retrieval; physicochemical properties and storage/handling decisions; synthetic routes and impurity risks; quality standards and testing decisions; and innovative design and professional ethics. The proposed implementation system combines a complete aspirin synthesis and quality-evaluation project with occupational micro-projects on β-lactam antibiotic stability, omeprazole storage, and related topics. Within the existing assessment weighting of 50% theory, 30% skills, and 20% continuous assessment, diversified evidence is collected for knowledge, technical performance, compliance, integrity, collaboration, reflection, and innovation. Conclusion: The proposed reform foregrounds the defining features of higher vocational education—occupational relevance, integration of theory and practice, school–enterprise collaboration, and the coordinated development of ethical responsibility and technical competence. It provides an implementable basis for subsequent action research and empirical evaluation.
Integrating Research, Industry, and Sustainability into Applied Inorganic Chemistry Education: An Outcome-Based Curriculum Reform
Applied Inorganic Chemistry is a professionally significant course for students majoring in Applied Chemistry because it connects fundamental inorganic theory with industrial production, inorganic synthesis, environmental governance, safety management, and frontier materials research. However, the course is difficult to teach effectively within limited contact hours because students must understand not only reaction principles and production processes, but also thermodynamic feasibility, kinetic control, process selection, resource utilization, pollution prevention, and research-oriented inorganic synthesis. This study develops a teaching reform framework based on the teaching schedule of Applied Inorganic Chemistry offered by the College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering at Yangtze University. The syllabus allocates 32 lecture hours to ten content modules, including synthetic ammonia, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, soda ash, caustic soda and chlorine, inorganic synthesis chemistry, thermodynamics and inorganic synthesis, and representative inorganic synthesis methods. It also adopts a two-part assessment structure consisting of in-class performance and tests, and a final research review assignment. Building on outcome-based education, constructive alignment, active learning, problem-based learning, formative assessment, green chemistry education, and discipline-based chemistry education research, this paper proposes a coherent reform model for transforming the course from a mainly content delivery course into a research-oriented, case-supported, literature-informed, and sustainability-integrated learning experience. The proposed model aligns course outcomes, module-level anchor problems, industrial cases, frontier reading tasks, staged research-review training, formative feedback, and assessment rubrics. The article provides a detailed course context analysis, a reconstructed outcome framework, module-by-module teaching design, a research-review pipeline, a rubric-based assessment system, and an implementation and evaluation plan. As a design-based curriculum study, this paper does not claim empirical improvement in student performance; instead, it presents an implementable and evaluable teaching reform design suitable for future teaching cycles.
The objective of this paper is to show that local renewable energy in Britain can compete well with the traditional National Grid and deliver costs that are less than half the current prices. First, the history of green electricity originally invented in England is summarized. Then the high prices of electricity in Britain are defined, showing that reduced costs are now possible through renewables because the UK monopoly National Grid is past its peak. Renewables, such as Solar and Wind, fluctuate and are not 100% available, suggesting that big energy storage is necessary, yet this has never been properly integrated into the National Grid. Hydrogen is the best molecule for storing and transporting energy in a composite tube trailer carrying 33MWh typically. When combined with solar panels and a large wind turbine, energy generation is in excess that can be converted to hydrogen stored in composite cylinders, filling renewable generation gaps with Combined Heat and Power (CHP) from zero emission fuel cells. An example of a large village site approaching this concept is described in detail, though failing in several aspects. The conclusion is that Solar plus Wind plus Hydrogen energy storage can be successful if the site scale is correct, such that appropriate solar/wind/hydrogen generation is installed, and the Grid is connected for back-up of the private wire system. Payback time of 3 to 4 years and savings on energy bills near £60M for each site over ten years should incentivize this innovation.
Variation of Dates of Bird’s Spring Arrival in Eastern Europe as a New Ecogeographical Rule
After three classical zoogeographical rules (Bergman’s, Allen’s and Gloger’s) many other ones became known. Along our studies of bird migrations in Ukraine and nearby countries in Eastern Europe, we paid attention to terms of bird arrival during many years in different locations. Early in the spring, birds can arrive in wide span of terms depending on weather conditions but late migrants arrive at terms that are more definite.
Designing a Research Oriented and Industry Connected Catalysis Principles Course: An Outcome Based Teaching Reform Study Based on the Yangtze University Syllabus
Catalysis is both a conceptual core of modern chemistry and an engineering foundation of chemical manufacturing, petroleum processing, environmental protection, and sustainable materials development. Yet the teaching of catalysis is difficult because the subject asks undergraduate students to integrate thermodynamics, adsorption, surface kinetics, transport phenomena, catalyst preparation, catalyst deactivation, and structure-performance reasoning within a limited number of contact hours. This study develops a teaching research framework based on the syllabus of the course Catalysis Principles offered by the College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering at Yangtze University. The syllabus defines Catalysis Principles as an elective course for Applied Chemistry students, allocates 32 classroom hours to eight content modules, emphasizes lecture-based but heuristic and discussion-supported instruction, and uses a two-part assessment structure consisting of in-class training and a final research report. Building on outcome-based education, constructive alignment, active learning, problem-based learning, formative feedback, and contemporary catalysis education literature, the study proposes a coherent reform model for transforming the course from a mainly content-delivery course into a research-oriented, literature-supported, data-informed, and industry-connected learning experience. The proposed model aligns course outcomes, module-level learning tasks, problem scenarios, reading assignments, formative assessment, and the final research report. It also integrates ideological and professional values such as scientific spirit, safety awareness, environmental responsibility, and innovation into disciplinary problem solving rather than treating them as separate slogans. The article provides a complete research design, a module-by-module teaching framework, assessment rubrics, literature-based learning tasks, quality assurance measures, and an implementation plan suitable for a 32-hour elective course. As a design-based curriculum study, it does not report classroom outcome data; instead, it presents an implementable and evaluable model for future teaching cycles.
Sustainable Landscape Approach for Post-Flash Flood Reconstruction in Sumatra: A Review
The catastrophic flash floods that struck Sumatra in late 2025 resulted in 969 fatalities, 262 missing persons, and economic losses exceeding USD 3.11 billion, exposing critical failures in watershed management and spatial planning. This qualitative literature review examines the implementation of sustainable landscape approaches in post-disaster reconstruction, explicitly addressing the reconstruction needs following Sumatra's flash floods. Through thematic synthesis of 85 sources from reputable journals (2020-2026), policy documents, and case studies, this study identifies six core themes: (1) disaster risk-sensitive spatial planning integration, (2) ecosystem restoration as a foundational strategy, (3) community resilience and participatory governance, (4) landscape-based livelihood restoration, (5) multi-stakeholder coordination mechanisms, and (6) monitoring and adaptive management systems. The findings reveal that sustainable landscape approaches—integrating Build Back Better principles, Nature-based Solutions, and ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction—offer comprehensive frameworks that simultaneously address ecological restoration, disaster risk reduction, and socio-economic recovery. Critical success factors include political commitment, integrated sectoral planning, genuine community participation, adequate financing, and technical capacity development. The study proposes a multidimensional reconstruction strategy for Sumatra encompassing upper-watershed forest restoration (50,000 hectares target), intensive agroforestry buffer zones (100,000 hectares), disaster risk-sensitive zoning enforcement, and the establishment of a multi-stakeholder platform. Policy recommendations emphasise institutional reform, legal strengthening for protected area enforcement, innovative financing through Payment for Ecosystem Services, and capacity building for landscape-based disaster risk reduction. This research contributes to disaster recovery literature by demonstrating how landscape approaches can transform post-disaster reconstruction from reactive infrastructure rebuilding to proactive, ecosystem-based resilience building.
Critical Perspectives on Crude Palm Oil’s Role in Developing Economies: Development Engine, Environmental Externalities, and Asymmetric Sustainability Governance
This article offers a critical review of the dual role of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) in developing economies, focusing on Indonesia and Malaysia as leading producers. It synthesizes peer reviewed studies published between 2000 and 2025 on export growth, rural development, environmental change, and sustainability governance. In Indonesia, for instance, palm oil contributed about 3.5 percent of GDP in 2024, generated substantial foreign exchange, and supported an estimated 16.5 million livelihoods, with smallholders managing roughly 40–42 percent of the plantation area. At the same time, expansion has been accused of being associated with deforestation, peatland conversion, biodiversity loss, greenhouse gas emissions, and land conflicts involving indigenous communities. The review advances three main arguments. First, economic benefits and environmental harms are often examined separately, obscuring how export oriented, commodity dependent growth is structurally linked to ecological degradation and vulnerability to price and policy shocks. Second, sustainability governance through instruments such as RSPO, ISPO, and MSPO is marked by power asymmetries: Northern buyers and standard setters exert disproportionate influence. At the same time, smallholders face high compliance costs and uncertain benefits. Third, palm oil governance is shaped by North–South contestations, with conservation oriented importers and development oriented producer states promoting competing sustainability narratives. The article argues for integrated, landscape scale and multi level governance that couples smallholder inclusion with robust environmental safeguards, aligns domestic and international standards, and addresses structural imbalances in value and power along the palm oil supply chain.
Aspergillus oryzae Compared to A. flavus - Genetic Analysis in Silico
Two genetically close filamentous Aspergillus species, the non-toxic A. oryzae used for food fermentation for thousands of years (e.g., koji mold, sake, soy sauce) playing huge role in food industry, and the main aflatoxin producer of A. flavus are studied here based on genetic analysis in silico. The evolutionary TimeLine computer program of Ascomycota fungi showed 520 MYA origins. Phylogenetic tree of genome sequences of Ascomycota fungi was found to group in three main clades. The genome size of A. flavus (37.7 x106 bpDNA) but not A. sojae (41.1 x106 bpDNA) showed smaller size than the descendent (90-100 MYA) A. oryzae (37.9 x106 bpDNA). In phylogeny of mitogenomes (mtDNA) A. terreus showed a distinct clade, and the toxic A. parasiticus grouped to the non-toxic A. sojae. Fungal production of aflatoxins, cellulases, and the ribosomal post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) of nisin, asperigimycin, gliotoxin; the fungal non-ribosomal peptide (NRPs) fusahexin; the polyketide taxane and mycolactone are reviewed and discussed.
Life Cycle Assessment and Carbon Footprint Methodologies in the Palm Oil Supply Chain: A Systematic Review of Approaches, System Boundaries, and Emission Hotspots
A growing focus on openness in assessing environmental performance across agricultural supply chains has promoted the adoption of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and carbon footprint frameworks within the palm oil sector. This study systematically explores the implementation of these methodologies, placing particular emphasis on configuration choices, system boundary settings, and the identification of emission-intensive stages. A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach was employed, using the Scopus database as the primary source of peer-reviewed publications. The article selection followed a structured PRISMA-based screening process, resulting in 36 eligible studies published between 2020 and 2026. Data were collected exclusively from secondary sources and managed using reference organization tools to ensure consistency. The analysis was conducted through thematic synthesis, focusing on methodological patterns, boundary variations, and emission characteristics across the supply chain. The findings indicate that LCA, particularly attributional approaches, dominates current applications, while carbon footprint methods are frequently integrated to quantify greenhouse gas emissions. System boundary choices, especially the inclusion of land-use change, significantly influence emissions outcomes. Key emission hotspots are consistently identified at the plantation and milling stages, with reported emissions ranging from 0.8 to 4.5 t CO₂-eq per ton of crude palm oil depending on methodological assumptions. Despite variability, a gradual convergence toward more standardized practices is observed. In conclusion, methodological choices play a decisive role in shaping the outcomes of environmental assessment. Future research is encouraged to enhance methodological harmonization, integrate site-specific data, and expand system coverage to improve analytical consistency and transparency.
From Degraded Landscapes to Prosperity: A Review of Oil Palm’s Role in Revitalizing Degraded Former Forest Areas for Smallholder Welfare
The global discourse on palm oil is characterized by a stark dichotomy: the commodity is aggressively "sought after" (dicari) for its versatility and economic efficiency, yet deeply "suspected" (dicurigai) for its environmental footprint. This study employs a qualitative literature review to explore the narrative of land optimization, specifically examining how oil palm expansion on degraded, formerly forested lands serves as an engine of rural welfare in Indonesia. Unlike systematic reviews that focus on statistical meta-analysis, this research synthesizes thematic narratives from academic literature (2020–2026) and expert policy insights. The findings reveal that a significant proportion of smallholder expansion occurs on "disturbed lands"—areas previously logged or abandoned—rather than primary forests, effectively transforming economic "ghost towns" into productive agricultural hubs. While the sector demonstrably raises household incomes above the rural poverty line compared with rubber or rice cultivation, structural inequalities persist between scheme (plasma) and independent (swadaya) smallholders in terms of yields and access to certification. The study concludes that optimizing the conversion of degraded lands, coupled with rigorous intensification and mandatory certification (ISPO), offers a viable pathway to reconcile the trade-off between ecological preservation and the economic rights of developing regions.
Which Factors Influence the Life of our Earth?
The life of our Earth can be separated into two periods. The first was the biological lifeless one and the second can be characterized by the presence of biological life. In the first period its matter and energy were appeared about 4,567 milliard years ago - in connection with a black hole event in accordance with the laws of conservation of mass and energy - and they were determined from their beginning by the effect of the outside circumstances and energy of the total Universe.
Teaching Reform and Practice of the Course Environmental Protectionin Oil and Gas Fields for Undergraduate Students Majoring in Applied Chemistry: A Case Study of the College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Yangtze University
Environmental Protection in Oil and Gas Fields is a key elective course for undergraduate students majoring in Applied Chemistry at the School of Chemical Engineering, Yangtze University. The course integrates theoretical foundations, industry orientation, and practical applicability. Its teaching quality directly influences the cultivation of students’ environmental literacy and professional application competence, as well as their ability to meet the growing demand for interdisciplinary applied chemistry talents driven by the green development of the oil and gas industry. In alignment with the training objective of the Applied Chemistry program at Yangtze University—namely, “integrating chemical theory with practical application, with a focus on oilfield chemistry characteristics”—this study employs literature review, questionnaire surveys, and teaching practice evaluation to systematically analyze existing issues in the current course structure (32 contact hours of theory-based instruction). Key challenges are identified in teaching content, pedagogical approaches, and assessment systems. Considering recent environmental protection policies and regulations in the oil and gas sector, emerging technological trends, and the cognitive characteristics of undergraduate students in applied chemistry, targeted teaching reform strategies are proposed. These strategies are further validated through instructional practice. The results demonstrate that optimizing course content, innovating theoretical teaching methodologies, improving assessment systems, and strengthening the integration between theory and application can significantly enhance teaching quality. These measures also promote students’ professional identity and practical competence, thereby laying a solid foundation for their future engagement in environmental protection within the oil and gas industry.
Environmental Protection in Oil and Gas Fields
Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in the Soils of an Agricultural Field Near the Bargny Cement Plant (Senegal)
In this study, the concentrations of heavy metals Fe, As, Mn, Cr, Ni, Zn, Ti, and Cu were measured in soil samples from an agricultural site located near a cement plant that has been operating in the area for several decades. The results of the analyses showed the following decreasing ranking of average concentrations: Fe > Ti > Cr > Ni > As > Mn > Zn > Cu. The maximum concentrations of As (54.79 mg/kg) and Cr (148.86 mg/kg) exceeded the limits set by the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The analysis of correlations between the concentrations of the different heavy metals studied indicated anthropogenic origins for the metallic elements As, Zn, and Cr. The agricultural field showed moderate enrichment by Ni, significant enrichment by Cr, and very high enrichment by As, with enrichment factors of 4.725, 8.315, and 20.599, respectively. Approximately 33.33% of the study area had an as concentration exceeding the permitted limit. The individual pollution index (PI) indicated moderate as pollution of the agricultural field. The overall Neme row pollution index (PN) placed the study site within the precautionary range for the trace metal Cr. Regarding As, the site was in the area of severe pollution, with a PN of 3.097. However, the potential ecological risks were low.
Heavy Metals, Risk Assessment, Soils, Agricultural Field, Cement Industry
From Stationarity to Resilience: A Framework for Climate-Informed Engineering Practice in Africa
Climate change presents a critical threat to the sustainability of African infrastructure, requiring an estimated $50 billion annually for adaptation. This paper evaluates the systemic shift required in engineering practice to transition from historical climate parameters to non-linear, predictive resilience models. By analyzing the vulnerabilities of African transportation, energy, and water systems-exemplified by the $1.4 billion loss during Cyclone Idai-we identify the technical obsolescence of current building codes. Through a multi-dimensional analysis of nature-based solutions, smart sensor networks, and climate-resistant coastal engineering, this study proposes a framework for integrating environmental flexibility into professional standards. Using case studies from Lagos and Abuja, Nigeria, we demonstrate the efficacy of sustainable drainage and green construction in mitigating flood risks. The findings underscore the pivotal role of professional engineering institutions in driving the policy advocacy and capacity building necessary to future-proof the continent’s-built environment.
A Ferryman Between Two Languages: Practice, Insights and Reflections on Bilingual Teaching of "Fine Organic Synthesis"
Enlightenment It is said that the ingenuity of modern education lies in its ability to wrap the bitter and troublesome aspects of teaching in the sugar-coated words of "reform" and "innovation", making people accept them willingly [1,2]. My years of teaching the bilingual course "Fine Organic Synthesis" at Yangtze University have been like a long "Odyssey" of knowledge.
Blockchain Technology for Palm Oil Supply Chain Traceability: A Systematic Review of Transparency, Authentication, and Sustainability Verification Systems
T he increasing digitalization of agri-food supply chains has intensified scholarly attention to technologies that enhance the reliability of traceability, transparency, and sustainability verification mechanisms. Within globally integrated palm oil supply chains, blockchain has emerged as a complementary digital infrastructure designed to strengthen documentation integrity and coordinated governance. This study systematically analyzes contemporary scholarly evidence on the role of blockchain technology in reinforcing transparency, authentication, and sustainability verification systems in palm oil supply chains. This research employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) design structured according to PRISMA-based screening procedures. Data were collected exclusively from the Scopus database through a multi-stage keyword refinement process, yielding 46 peer-reviewed articles published between 2021 and 2025 that met predefined inclusion criteria. Data analysis was conducted through structured extraction, thematic coding, and comparative synthesis of architectural configurations, integration models, performance indicators, and reported empirical outcomes. The findings reveal seven dominant thematic clusters, including permissioned and consortium-based blockchain architectures, IoT-integrated traceability infrastructures, immutable ledger-based transparency enhancement, cryptographic authentication systems, digital anchoring of sustainability certificates, smart contract–enabled compliance monitoring, and measurable performance improvements in audit efficiency and data reconciliation. Evidence indicates that blockchain primarily functions as acomplementary governance-supporting layer integrated with existing enterprise systems. In conclusion, blockchain technology enhances the coherence of documentation, the reliability of authentication, and the efficiency of sustainability verification within palm oil traceability systems. Future research may expand toward longitudinal performance evaluation, cross-commodity comparison, and interoperability standardization analysis.
Net-Zero Emissions Pathways in Palm Oil Production: A Systematic Review of Methane Capture, Precision Agriculture, Renewable Energy Integration, and Carbon Credit Mechanisms
T he palm oil sector plays a strategic role in global vegetable oil supply while facing increasing expectations to contribute to greenhouse gas emission reduction and net-zero climate targets. Scientific evidence indicates that multiple technological and managerial interventions have been explored to address emission sources across plantation and milling systems. This study aims to systematically review and synthesize peer-reviewed literature on net-zero emission pathways in palm oil production, focusing on methane capture from palm oil mill effluent, precision agriculture practices, renewable energy integration, and carbon credit mechanisms. This research employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) design following a structured and transparent protocol. Scientific articles were collected exclusively from the Scopus database using predefined keyword combinations related to palm oil production and low-carbon strategies. A multi-stage screening process based on relevance, publication year (2019–2025), language, and accessibility resulted in 32 eligible peer-reviewed articles for analysis. Data analysis was conducted using thematic coding, frequency mapping, and cross-study comparisons to identify dominant patterns and reported emission-reduction outcomes. The results indicate that methane capture and utilization from palm oil mill effluent represents the most mature and high-impact mitigation pathway. At the same time, precision agriculture and the integration of renewable energy contribute to improved emission efficiency at the plantation and mill levels. Carbon credit mechanisms function as enabling instruments that enhance economic feasibility and investment readiness. The integrated application of these pathways demonstrates substantial potential to meet net-zero emissions targets under supportive institutional conditions. In conclusion, the reviewed literature suggests that net-zero emission pathways in palm oil production are technically feasible and increasingly supported by empirical evidence. Future research is recommended to focus on system-level integration, smallholder inclusion, and long-term performance assessment across diverse production contexts.
Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Carbon Sequestration in IntensiveAgricultural Floodplains: Bridging the Gap Between Monocultureand Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in Phichit Province, Thailand
The Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector occupies a critical nexus in the global carbon cycle, acting simultaneously as a source of greenhouse gas emissions and a potential terrestrial sink. This study quantifies the carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) sequestration potential across three administratively distinct sub-districts—Sam Ngam, Tha Lo, and Kamphaeng Din— in the Lower Northern region of Thailand. By integrating 2023 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) datasets with species-specific allometric carbon coefficients derived from stratified 40x40 meter field sampling plots, we assessed the standing carbon stocks of these rice-dominated landscapes. Results indicate a profound landscape homogenization, with rice paddies accounting for over 85% of the agricultural area. While Sam Ngam exhibits the highest aggregate carbon sequestration (~177,870 t $CO_2$) due to its extensive land area, its sequestration efficiency per hectare (7.60 t $CO_2/ha$) is orders of magnitude lower than that of perennial systems such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantations (2,964 t $CO_2/ha$) and mixed orchards. This study moves beyond static biomass accounting by critically evaluating the results through the lens of recent advancements in Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) microbial dynamics and the PLUS-InVEST modeling framework. We argue that the current monocultural trajectory presents a “carbon density paradox,” where vast vegetative cover masks a functional deficit in long-term carbon storage. We propose a transition towards “Teal Carbon” strategies—managing freshwater wetland/canal interfaces—and agroforestry to enhance resilience without compromising food security.
Genomics of ‘ca’ Phytoplasma Vitis ‘FD’ and Related Strains in Silico
The current achievements and limitations of the genetics and genomics of ‘ca. Phytoplasma vitis Flavescence Dorée phytoplasma ‘FDp’ are reviewed and discussed here. The name originated from the Fr. flavescence (yellowing), and Fr. dorée (golden), the ‘ca.’ prefix stands for candidatus. The genetics of related Phytoplasma and Mycoplasma isolates are also discussed. Complete Phytoplasma genomes were compared in silico to follow the evolutionary scaled geneloss and genome reductions. DNA sequences of Prophages and PMUs (Potential Mobile Units) of Phytoplasma genomes were analyzed. The Phytoplasma GeneBank entries and the possible molecular cross reactions are discussed. Sequence parts of Phytoplasma strains were found to obviously show sequence similarities to bacteria and plant organelle genomes of cpDNA and mtDNA which have prokaryotic origins from α-ProteoBacteria. The continuous horizontal gene transfers (HGT; i.e., influx of organellar DNA to nuclear genome; cytonuclear interactions) from plant organelles cpDNA and mtDNA to nuclear genomes (2n), including genes of 16S rRNA, ftsH and all homolog (ortholog and paralog) and analog genes were suggested to provide multiplied sequence targets with putative cross reactions to Phytoplasma identification. TimeTree of Life analysis of two infected host plants of Vitis and Solanum attractive to ‘ca. Ph. vitis FD’ and ‘ca. Ph. solani BN’ showed ˃60 MY (Vitis) and >150 MY (Solanum) times in the history of evolution which indicated different time period exposed to Phytoplasma infections. The data presented here highlights the importance of the identification of further Phytoplasma secreted proteins, the need for new serological and plant symptoms analyses, the use of Microgenomics by single cell Laser MicroDissection (LMD) technology, single cell genomics (CSG), and the possibility of in vitro cultivation of ‘ca.’ Phytoplasma strains to elimination ‘ca.’ prefix.
Enhancing PVC Recycling: The Waste Recycling Project (WREP)as a Model for Sustainable Waste Management
The Waste Recycling Project (WREP), launched in 2016 by PVC Forum/VinylPlus Italia (the Italian association of the PVC value-chain) and VinylPlus® (the European PVC industry’s Commitment to sustainability), aims to improve PVC waste collection and recycling in Italy. This initiative addresses the issue that less than half of PVC waste was being recycled due to challenges like scattered collection points and small-scale recyclers facing complex regulations. WREP targets the recycling of PVC waste from bulky urban waste at municipal collection centres in northern and central Italy, in partnership with multi-utilities and recyclers. In 2023, the project expanded to include PVC from demolition and renovation activities, with new partnerships and systems for collecting and recycling PVC from construction-related items like windows and pipes. Furthermore, WREP has advanced the development of portable devices to sort PVC from other plastics and to detect substances no more allowed today but still present in old PVC applications (the so-called legacy additives). In 2021, a handheld detector using near-infrared hyperspectral (NIR) technology was introduced, reducing PVC contamination levels from 3% to under 1%. The software has been further developed to detect the presence of DEHP(Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) in post-consumer PVC. In 2023, further feasibility studies showed that the XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy) technology could be applied to the detection of legacy lead in PVC waste. Based on the feasibility study, VinylPlus® has funded the design of a pilot plant aimed to test and implement XRF technology for industrial applications. The WREP Project demonstrates that collaborative value-chain approaches combined with innovative sorting technologies provide a replicable bestpractice model for enhancing PVC recycling, supporting EPR implementation, and delivering environmental and economic benefits.
Near- Infrared Hyperspectral Technology (NIR)
Using Mercury Transformative Digestive Microbes for Wastewater, Soil and Dental Applications
the Environment through Diverse Pathways, including combustion, Industrial and mining effluents, septic discharge, and dental procedural waste. It may appear as elemental mercury (Hg0), inorganic mercuric compounds (Hg2), or organic mercury compounds such as methylmercury (MeHg). Although potentially hazardous in all forms, methylmercury poses the greatest concern due to its extreme neurotoxicity, high solubility, and ability to bioaccumulate within the food chain. This neurotoxin can cause a spectrum of adverse health effects, from subtle neurodevelopmental disorders to severe neurological impairments. Moreover, methylmercury exhibits significant environmental mobility, traversing from atmospheric and terrestrial systems into aquatic ecosystems, where it bioaccumulates and biomagnifies from plankton to fish, impacting human and wildlife health. In terrestrial environments, methylmercury can contaminate soil, disrupting beneficial microbial communities and entering the food web through agricultural products intended for human and animal consumption. In nature, mercury compounds interact with microbes in several ways. Certain microbes methylate Hg0 into MeHg, which increases environmental toxicity. However, most microbes are adversely affected by mercury ions as they disrupt cellular functions by binding to essential biomolecules. Mercury is particularly detrimental to a microbe’s ability to produce protease, an enzyme crucial for breaking down proteins into amino acids. Protease plays a significant role commercially in wastewater treatment, vacuum system maintenance, animal nutrition, soil health, and agricultural applications. Many commercial processes depend on non-denuded proteases for protein degradation. When microbes are utilized to produce protease for commercial applications, the presence of mercury in any form other than Hg0 can potentially diminish their functionality through protease disruption. Although not only the microbe’s ability to create and release protease is inhibited, but any extracellular fluid or soil borne protease is irreversibly denatured through mercuric interaction, particularly Hg2. In a mercury contaminated environment such as an industrial or mining area, some bacteria, fungi, and mold have adapted to transform mercury into its nontoxic elemental form. The merA and merB genes produce the enzymes; mercuric reductase, and organomercurial lyase, which convert toxic forms of mercury into elemental mercury. This process produces non soluble mercury which is easier to capture through filtration methods and lessens environmental discharge. The patented Mereduce TM technology fosters a microbe’s ability to create transformative enzymes for both microbial and protease protection. Through novel methods for downstream enzyme presentation, it creates an environment for the growth and adaptation of transformative microbes while generating active protease enzymes.
Trials of Christian Martyrs. Case Study: De Perpetuae et Felicitatis Martyrio
A person who dies for his religious faith is called a martyr or a martyr, but the term martyr also applies to those who give their lives for another cause, considered noble, such as those who die for their country in wartime. Martyrdom is the suffering, torment, torture, or death endured by someone for his ideas or beliefs. The term martyr is used by extension and in other forms, martyr of the fatherland, martyr of work, to honor specially performed acts of heroism. The word “martyr” is of Greek origin and denotes someone who confessed Christ by his own death. In the first phase, the title of martyr was used with reference to the apostles while they were still alive, then it was extended to all those who demonstrated faith, and finally it was used for those who died as a result of persecution.
I was born in a small city surrounded by red pines in Heilongjiang Province, in the northeastern part of China. The winters there are long, with snow covering the mountains and forests, and the world is always a vast expanse of white, as if people are destined to be accompanied by silence. My father was a teacher at the local teachers’ college, teaching Chinese classical literature and conducting research.
Sustainable Peatland Management in Oil Palm Plantation: Challengingbut Manageable
The rapid expansion of oil palm plantations across tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia has intensified environmental degradation, including peat subsidence, CO₂ emissions, and recurrent fires. These issues have triggered growing academic and policy interest in sustainable peatland management, especially given the ecological fragility and socio-political complexity of plantation landscapes. This study aims to systematically synthesize scholarly evidence on the effectiveness, limitations, and interconnections of current sustainability strategies in hydrological control, fire prevention, land use planning, governance, and community engagement. This research employs a qualitative Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach, guided by the PRISMA protocol. Data were collected through structured searches in the ScienceDirect database using targeted Boolean keywords. A total of 36 peerreviewed articles published between 2019 and 2025 were selected based on thematic relevance, open-access availability, and methodological rigor. All references were organized using Mendeley Desktop to ensure traceability and citation integrity. Data analysis involved thematic coding and content interpretation to identify cross-cutting patterns and strategic interactions. The results highlight that integrated water table control, participatory fire mitigation, context-sensitive spatial planning, and inclusive governance frameworks are essential pillars of sustainable peatland systems. However, gaps persist in enforcement capacity, cross-sectoral coordination, and long-term community incentives. In conclusion, sustainability in peat-based oil palm landscapes is attainable through multi-level alignment of ecological, technical, and institutional strategies. Future studies should explore the scalability of locally adapted interventions and long-term monitoring frameworks across diverse peatland geographies.
Enabling the Circular-Bioeconomy through Palm Oil Biomass: AReview of Industrial Innovations, Policy Frameworks, and MarketIntegration
The transition toward a circular-bioeconomy has positioned palm oil biomass as a pivotal renewable resource for achieving sustainable industrial transformation and low-carbon development. Yet, realizing this transition requires a systemic understanding of how technological, institutional, and market mechanisms interact to enable circularity across the palm oil value chain. This study aims to (1) synthesize technological and industrial innovation pathways driving palm biomass valorisation; (2) analyze the role of policy and governance instruments in supporting sustainable market integration; and (3) identify critical gaps and opportunities for advancing circular-bioeconomic transitions in the palm oil sector. Using a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach, data were systematically collected from the Scopus database through a multi-stage keyword refinement process. The initial query (Palm Oil AND Circular Economy) yielded 231 results, refined through specific terms related to biomass valorisation, innovation, and sustainability. Following the exclusion of irrelevant items, the restriction to publications from 2021–2025, and the restriction to open-access and open-archive sources, 38 peer-reviewed articles were retained for qualitative synthesis. Analytical procedures involved thematic coding and comparative interpretation to map interdisciplinary linkages among technological, institutional, and market domains. Findings reveal that integrated biorefinery technologies, digital traceability platforms, and AI-assisted optimization systems enhance resource efficiency and industrial circularity. However, fragmented regulatory frameworks, limited infrastructure, and investment asymmetry remain key constraints to large-scale adoption. The study concludes that achieving a circular-bioeconomy through palm oil biomass valorisation requires coordinated progress across technological innovation, institutional alignment, and market transformation. Future research should advance quantitative modeling, life-cycle assessment, and policy harmonization strategies to accelerate regional bioeconomic implementation.
A Review of Decarbonization Strategies in Oil Palm Plantations Toward Net-Zero Emissions
Decarbonizing oil palm plantations has become increasingly critical as global climate commitments intensify and agricultural supply chains face growing pressure to align with net-zero emission targets. Recent scientific literature highlights a wide range of technological, ecological, and governance-based mitigation approaches, yet these findings remain fragmented across disciplines, limiting the sector’s ability to identify strategies with the highest carbon-reduction potential. This study addresses this gap by conducting a systematic literature review aimed at (1) identifying and classifying the dominant decarbonization strategies implemented in oil palm plantations, and (2) evaluating their relative significance, mitigation potential, and practical feasibility across diverse production contexts. This research adopts a qualitative Systematic Literature Review (SLR) design following the PRISMA protocol. Data were gathered exclusively from peer-reviewed journal articles indexed in Scopus, using structured keyword refinement and multi-stage inclusion criteria to ensure thematic relevance. A total of 39 publications met all eligibility requirements and were analyzed through thematic synthesis. Data analysis involved qualitative coding, cross-study comparison, and extraction of quantitative indicators related to emissions, mitigation performance, and implementation considerations. The findings reveal five dominant decarbonization pathways: methane mitigation from palm oil mill effluent, energy-efficiency improvements, biomass-based fuel substitution, landscape-level carbon sequestration, and digital MRV enhancement supported by governance instruments. Methane mitigation demonstrates the highest reduction potential, followed by energy transformation and peatland restoration. The review concludes that integrated, multi-dimensional approaches are necessary to achieve netzero trajectories. Future studies should explore hybrid decarbonization models, long-term MRV performance, and the inclusion of smallholders in low-carbon transition frameworks.
Variability in the Duration of Rains and Other Elements of the RainCourse
Rains of varying intensity and duration have different effects on the water balance of territories and economic indicators of regional development. The paper examines the features of changes in time and in various physical and geographical conditions of the duration of rains and the position of the maximum intensity during rain. It is shown that in mountainous areas there is more precipitation, both in quantity and frequency.The research used methods of mathematical statistics and graphical analysis.In general, for all four meteorological stations, which were studied, a similar distribution of the probability of occurrence of rains with a given duration is characteristic. Rains lasting more than 400-500 minutes occur in less than 10% of all meteorological stations. For rains lasting less than 300 minutes, there is a difference in the probability of occurrence of 5-10% between meteorological stations. Some limits of air humidity, air temperature and soil surface at which rain was not observed are determined, what is important when forecasting. Analysis of the influence of meteorological parameters on the duration of rains and the position of the maximum intensity during rain shows that at an average relative humidity of less than 45-50 percent there was practically no rain, and at a minimum relative humidity of less 30% as well. Air temperature (average, maximum and minimum) of 20-25 °C is critical, above which rains lasting more than 400-500 minutes did not occur. The longest rains are observed at low average daily air temperatures, less than 10 °C. At a minimum soil temperature of 20 °C and above, rains are practically not observed (4 cases out of 989). At an absolute maximum soil surface temperature of more than 50 °C, prolonged rains of more than 500 minutes are also practically not observed.
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