Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research
Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research is an open access peer-reviewed journal from the publishers of Scientific Research and Community (SRC) which publishes articles in the form of written, video and power-point presentations from the arena of Earth and Environmental Science Research. The journal focuses to build up accessing the complete content of articles freely from online for reader’s perusal. Articles accepts in the form of research, review, analysis, magazines, editorials, opinion, communications, mini-review, short communications, picturized, book review, video type and power point presentations (PPTS). Articles can be submitted through online from https://srcpublishers.com/earth-environmental-sciences-res/user/register or can send through an e-mail with attachment for earthsciences@onlinescientificresearch.info (or) jeesr@onlinescientificresearch.net 2.03 Impact Factor 84.5% Citations 90% Acceptance
Aspergillus oryzae Compared to A. flavus - Genetic Analysis in Silico
Two genetically close filamentous Aspergillus species, the non-toxic A. oryzae used for food fermentation for thousands of years (e.g., koji mold, sake, soy sauce) playing huge role in food industry, and the main aflatoxin producer of A. flavus are studied here based on genetic analysis in silico. The evolutionary TimeLine computer program of Ascomycota fungi showed 520 MYA origins. Phylogenetic tree of genome sequences of Ascomycota fungi was found to group in three main clades. The genome size of A. flavus (37.7 x106 bpDNA) but not A. sojae (41.1 x106 bpDNA) showed smaller size than the descendent (90-100 MYA) A. oryzae (37.9 x106 bpDNA). In phylogeny of mitogenomes (mtDNA) A. terreus showed a distinct clade, and the toxic A. parasiticus grouped to the non-toxic A. sojae. Fungal production of aflatoxins, cellulases, and the ribosomal post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) of nisin, asperigimycin, gliotoxin; the fungal non-ribosomal peptide (NRPs) fusahexin; the polyketide taxane and mycolactone are reviewed and discussed.
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research
Life Cycle Assessment and Carbon Footprint Methodologies in the Palm Oil Supply Chain: A Systematic Review of Approaches, System Boundaries, and Emission Hotspots
A growing focus on openness in assessing environmental performance across agricultural supply chains has promoted the adoption of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and carbon footprint frameworks within the palm oil sector. This study systematically explores the implementation of these methodologies, placing particular emphasis on configuration choices, system boundary settings, and the identification of emission-intensive stages. A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach was employed, using the Scopus database as the primary source of peer-reviewed publications. The article selection followed a structured PRISMA-based screening process, resulting in 36 eligible studies published between 2020 and 2026. Data were collected exclusively from secondary sources and managed using reference organization tools to ensure consistency. The analysis was conducted through thematic synthesis, focusing on methodological patterns, boundary variations, and emission characteristics across the supply chain. The findings indicate that LCA, particularly attributional approaches, dominates current applications, while carbon footprint methods are frequently integrated to quantify greenhouse gas emissions. System boundary choices, especially the inclusion of land-use change, significantly influence emissions outcomes. Key emission hotspots are consistently identified at the plantation and milling stages, with reported emissions ranging from 0.8 to 4.5 t CO₂-eq per ton of crude palm oil depending on methodological assumptions. Despite variability, a gradual convergence toward more standardized practices is observed. In conclusion, methodological choices play a decisive role in shaping the outcomes of environmental assessment. Future research is encouraged to enhance methodological harmonization, integrate site-specific data, and expand system coverage to improve analytical consistency and transparency.
From Degraded Landscapes to Prosperity: A Review of Oil Palm’s Role in Revitalizing Degraded Former Forest Areas for Smallholder Welfare
The global discourse on palm oil is characterized by a stark dichotomy: the commodity is aggressively "sought after" (dicari) for its versatility and economic efficiency, yet deeply "suspected" (dicurigai) for its environmental footprint. This study employs a qualitative literature review to explore the narrative of land optimization, specifically examining how oil palm expansion on degraded, formerly forested lands serves as an engine of rural welfare in Indonesia. Unlike systematic reviews that focus on statistical meta-analysis, this research synthesizes thematic narratives from academic literature (2020–2026) and expert policy insights. The findings reveal that a significant proportion of smallholder expansion occurs on "disturbed lands"—areas previously logged or abandoned—rather than primary forests, effectively transforming economic "ghost towns" into productive agricultural hubs. While the sector demonstrably raises household incomes above the rural poverty line compared with rubber or rice cultivation, structural inequalities persist between scheme (plasma) and independent (swadaya) smallholders in terms of yields and access to certification. The study concludes that optimizing the conversion of degraded lands, coupled with rigorous intensification and mandatory certification (ISPO), offers a viable pathway to reconcile the trade-off between ecological preservation and the economic rights of developing regions.
Which Factors Influence the Life of our Earth?
The life of our Earth can be separated into two periods. The first was the biological lifeless one and the second can be characterized by the presence of biological life. In the first period its matter and energy were appeared about 4,567 milliard years ago - in connection with a black hole event in accordance with the laws of conservation of mass and energy - and they were determined from their beginning by the effect of the outside circumstances and energy of the total Universe.
Teaching Reform and Practice of the Course Environmental Protectionin Oil and Gas Fields for Undergraduate Students Majoring in Applied Chemistry: A Case Study of the College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Yangtze University
Environmental Protection in Oil and Gas Fields is a key elective course for undergraduate students majoring in Applied Chemistry at the School of Chemical Engineering, Yangtze University. The course integrates theoretical foundations, industry orientation, and practical applicability. Its teaching quality directly influences the cultivation of students’ environmental literacy and professional application competence, as well as their ability to meet the growing demand for interdisciplinary applied chemistry talents driven by the green development of the oil and gas industry. In alignment with the training objective of the Applied Chemistry program at Yangtze University—namely, “integrating chemical theory with practical application, with a focus on oilfield chemistry characteristics”—this study employs literature review, questionnaire surveys, and teaching practice evaluation to systematically analyze existing issues in the current course structure (32 contact hours of theory-based instruction). Key challenges are identified in teaching content, pedagogical approaches, and assessment systems. Considering recent environmental protection policies and regulations in the oil and gas sector, emerging technological trends, and the cognitive characteristics of undergraduate students in applied chemistry, targeted teaching reform strategies are proposed. These strategies are further validated through instructional practice. The results demonstrate that optimizing course content, innovating theoretical teaching methodologies, improving assessment systems, and strengthening the integration between theory and application can significantly enhance teaching quality. These measures also promote students’ professional identity and practical competence, thereby laying a solid foundation for their future engagement in environmental protection within the oil and gas industry.
Environmental Protection in Oil and Gas Fields
Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in the Soils of an Agricultural Field Near the Bargny Cement Plant (Senegal)
In this study, the concentrations of heavy metals Fe, As, Mn, Cr, Ni, Zn, Ti, and Cu were measured in soil samples from an agricultural site located near a cement plant that has been operating in the area for several decades. The results of the analyses showed the following decreasing ranking of average concentrations: Fe > Ti > Cr > Ni > As > Mn > Zn > Cu. The maximum concentrations of As (54.79 mg/kg) and Cr (148.86 mg/kg) exceeded the limits set by the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The analysis of correlations between the concentrations of the different heavy metals studied indicated anthropogenic origins for the metallic elements As, Zn, and Cr. The agricultural field showed moderate enrichment by Ni, significant enrichment by Cr, and very high enrichment by As, with enrichment factors of 4.725, 8.315, and 20.599, respectively. Approximately 33.33% of the study area had an as concentration exceeding the permitted limit. The individual pollution index (PI) indicated moderate as pollution of the agricultural field. The overall Neme row pollution index (PN) placed the study site within the precautionary range for the trace metal Cr. Regarding As, the site was in the area of severe pollution, with a PN of 3.097. However, the potential ecological risks were low.
Heavy Metals, Risk Assessment, Soils, Agricultural Field, Cement Industry
From Stationarity to Resilience: A Framework for Climate-Informed Engineering Practice in Africa
Climate change presents a critical threat to the sustainability of African infrastructure, requiring an estimated $50 billion annually for adaptation. This paper evaluates the systemic shift required in engineering practice to transition from historical climate parameters to non-linear, predictive resilience models. By analyzing the vulnerabilities of African transportation, energy, and water systems-exemplified by the $1.4 billion loss during Cyclone Idai-we identify the technical obsolescence of current building codes. Through a multi-dimensional analysis of nature-based solutions, smart sensor networks, and climate-resistant coastal engineering, this study proposes a framework for integrating environmental flexibility into professional standards. Using case studies from Lagos and Abuja, Nigeria, we demonstrate the efficacy of sustainable drainage and green construction in mitigating flood risks. The findings underscore the pivotal role of professional engineering institutions in driving the policy advocacy and capacity building necessary to future-proof the continent’s-built environment.
A Ferryman Between Two Languages: Practice, Insights and Reflections on Bilingual Teaching of "Fine Organic Synthesis"
Enlightenment It is said that the ingenuity of modern education lies in its ability to wrap the bitter and troublesome aspects of teaching in the sugar-coated words of "reform" and "innovation", making people accept them willingly [1,2]. My years of teaching the bilingual course "Fine Organic Synthesis" at Yangtze University have been like a long "Odyssey" of knowledge.
Blockchain Technology for Palm Oil Supply Chain Traceability: A Systematic Review of Transparency, Authentication, and Sustainability Verification Systems
T he increasing digitalization of agri-food supply chains has intensified scholarly attention to technologies that enhance the reliability of traceability, transparency, and sustainability verification mechanisms. Within globally integrated palm oil supply chains, blockchain has emerged as a complementary digital infrastructure designed to strengthen documentation integrity and coordinated governance. This study systematically analyzes contemporary scholarly evidence on the role of blockchain technology in reinforcing transparency, authentication, and sustainability verification systems in palm oil supply chains. This research employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) design structured according to PRISMA-based screening procedures. Data were collected exclusively from the Scopus database through a multi-stage keyword refinement process, yielding 46 peer-reviewed articles published between 2021 and 2025 that met predefined inclusion criteria. Data analysis was conducted through structured extraction, thematic coding, and comparative synthesis of architectural configurations, integration models, performance indicators, and reported empirical outcomes. The findings reveal seven dominant thematic clusters, including permissioned and consortium-based blockchain architectures, IoT-integrated traceability infrastructures, immutable ledger-based transparency enhancement, cryptographic authentication systems, digital anchoring of sustainability certificates, smart contract–enabled compliance monitoring, and measurable performance improvements in audit efficiency and data reconciliation. Evidence indicates that blockchain primarily functions as acomplementary governance-supporting layer integrated with existing enterprise systems. In conclusion, blockchain technology enhances the coherence of documentation, the reliability of authentication, and the efficiency of sustainability verification within palm oil traceability systems. Future research may expand toward longitudinal performance evaluation, cross-commodity comparison, and interoperability standardization analysis.
Net-Zero Emissions Pathways in Palm Oil Production: A Systematic Review of Methane Capture, Precision Agriculture, Renewable Energy Integration, and Carbon Credit Mechanisms
T he palm oil sector plays a strategic role in global vegetable oil supply while facing increasing expectations to contribute to greenhouse gas emission reduction and net-zero climate targets. Scientific evidence indicates that multiple technological and managerial interventions have been explored to address emission sources across plantation and milling systems. This study aims to systematically review and synthesize peer-reviewed literature on net-zero emission pathways in palm oil production, focusing on methane capture from palm oil mill effluent, precision agriculture practices, renewable energy integration, and carbon credit mechanisms. This research employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) design following a structured and transparent protocol. Scientific articles were collected exclusively from the Scopus database using predefined keyword combinations related to palm oil production and low-carbon strategies. A multi-stage screening process based on relevance, publication year (2019–2025), language, and accessibility resulted in 32 eligible peer-reviewed articles for analysis. Data analysis was conducted using thematic coding, frequency mapping, and cross-study comparisons to identify dominant patterns and reported emission-reduction outcomes. The results indicate that methane capture and utilization from palm oil mill effluent represents the most mature and high-impact mitigation pathway. At the same time, precision agriculture and the integration of renewable energy contribute to improved emission efficiency at the plantation and mill levels. Carbon credit mechanisms function as enabling instruments that enhance economic feasibility and investment readiness. The integrated application of these pathways demonstrates substantial potential to meet net-zero emissions targets under supportive institutional conditions. In conclusion, the reviewed literature suggests that net-zero emission pathways in palm oil production are technically feasible and increasingly supported by empirical evidence. Future research is recommended to focus on system-level integration, smallholder inclusion, and long-term performance assessment across diverse production contexts.
Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Carbon Sequestration in IntensiveAgricultural Floodplains: Bridging the Gap Between Monocultureand Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in Phichit Province, Thailand
The Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector occupies a critical nexus in the global carbon cycle, acting simultaneously as a source of greenhouse gas emissions and a potential terrestrial sink. This study quantifies the carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) sequestration potential across three administratively distinct sub-districts—Sam Ngam, Tha Lo, and Kamphaeng Din— in the Lower Northern region of Thailand. By integrating 2023 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) datasets with species-specific allometric carbon coefficients derived from stratified 40x40 meter field sampling plots, we assessed the standing carbon stocks of these rice-dominated landscapes. Results indicate a profound landscape homogenization, with rice paddies accounting for over 85% of the agricultural area. While Sam Ngam exhibits the highest aggregate carbon sequestration (~177,870 t $CO_2$) due to its extensive land area, its sequestration efficiency per hectare (7.60 t $CO_2/ha$) is orders of magnitude lower than that of perennial systems such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantations (2,964 t $CO_2/ha$) and mixed orchards. This study moves beyond static biomass accounting by critically evaluating the results through the lens of recent advancements in Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) microbial dynamics and the PLUS-InVEST modeling framework. We argue that the current monocultural trajectory presents a “carbon density paradox,” where vast vegetative cover masks a functional deficit in long-term carbon storage. We propose a transition towards “Teal Carbon” strategies—managing freshwater wetland/canal interfaces—and agroforestry to enhance resilience without compromising food security.
Genomics of ‘ca’ Phytoplasma Vitis ‘FD’ and Related Strains in Silico
The current achievements and limitations of the genetics and genomics of ‘ca. Phytoplasma vitis Flavescence Dorée phytoplasma ‘FDp’ are reviewed and discussed here. The name originated from the Fr. flavescence (yellowing), and Fr. dorée (golden), the ‘ca.’ prefix stands for candidatus. The genetics of related Phytoplasma and Mycoplasma isolates are also discussed. Complete Phytoplasma genomes were compared in silico to follow the evolutionary scaled geneloss and genome reductions. DNA sequences of Prophages and PMUs (Potential Mobile Units) of Phytoplasma genomes were analyzed. The Phytoplasma GeneBank entries and the possible molecular cross reactions are discussed. Sequence parts of Phytoplasma strains were found to obviously show sequence similarities to bacteria and plant organelle genomes of cpDNA and mtDNA which have prokaryotic origins from α-ProteoBacteria. The continuous horizontal gene transfers (HGT; i.e., influx of organellar DNA to nuclear genome; cytonuclear interactions) from plant organelles cpDNA and mtDNA to nuclear genomes (2n), including genes of 16S rRNA, ftsH and all homolog (ortholog and paralog) and analog genes were suggested to provide multiplied sequence targets with putative cross reactions to Phytoplasma identification. TimeTree of Life analysis of two infected host plants of Vitis and Solanum attractive to ‘ca. Ph. vitis FD’ and ‘ca. Ph. solani BN’ showed ˃60 MY (Vitis) and >150 MY (Solanum) times in the history of evolution which indicated different time period exposed to Phytoplasma infections. The data presented here highlights the importance of the identification of further Phytoplasma secreted proteins, the need for new serological and plant symptoms analyses, the use of Microgenomics by single cell Laser MicroDissection (LMD) technology, single cell genomics (CSG), and the possibility of in vitro cultivation of ‘ca.’ Phytoplasma strains to elimination ‘ca.’ prefix.
Enhancing PVC Recycling: The Waste Recycling Project (WREP)as a Model for Sustainable Waste Management
The Waste Recycling Project (WREP), launched in 2016 by PVC Forum/VinylPlus Italia (the Italian association of the PVC value-chain) and VinylPlus® (the European PVC industry’s Commitment to sustainability), aims to improve PVC waste collection and recycling in Italy. This initiative addresses the issue that less than half of PVC waste was being recycled due to challenges like scattered collection points and small-scale recyclers facing complex regulations. WREP targets the recycling of PVC waste from bulky urban waste at municipal collection centres in northern and central Italy, in partnership with multi-utilities and recyclers. In 2023, the project expanded to include PVC from demolition and renovation activities, with new partnerships and systems for collecting and recycling PVC from construction-related items like windows and pipes. Furthermore, WREP has advanced the development of portable devices to sort PVC from other plastics and to detect substances no more allowed today but still present in old PVC applications (the so-called legacy additives). In 2021, a handheld detector using near-infrared hyperspectral (NIR) technology was introduced, reducing PVC contamination levels from 3% to under 1%. The software has been further developed to detect the presence of DEHP(Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) in post-consumer PVC. In 2023, further feasibility studies showed that the XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy) technology could be applied to the detection of legacy lead in PVC waste. Based on the feasibility study, VinylPlus® has funded the design of a pilot plant aimed to test and implement XRF technology for industrial applications. The WREP Project demonstrates that collaborative value-chain approaches combined with innovative sorting technologies provide a replicable bestpractice model for enhancing PVC recycling, supporting EPR implementation, and delivering environmental and economic benefits.
Near- Infrared Hyperspectral Technology (NIR)
Using Mercury Transformative Digestive Microbes for Wastewater, Soil and Dental Applications
the Environment through Diverse Pathways, including combustion, Industrial and mining effluents, septic discharge, and dental procedural waste. It may appear as elemental mercury (Hg0), inorganic mercuric compounds (Hg2), or organic mercury compounds such as methylmercury (MeHg). Although potentially hazardous in all forms, methylmercury poses the greatest concern due to its extreme neurotoxicity, high solubility, and ability to bioaccumulate within the food chain. This neurotoxin can cause a spectrum of adverse health effects, from subtle neurodevelopmental disorders to severe neurological impairments. Moreover, methylmercury exhibits significant environmental mobility, traversing from atmospheric and terrestrial systems into aquatic ecosystems, where it bioaccumulates and biomagnifies from plankton to fish, impacting human and wildlife health. In terrestrial environments, methylmercury can contaminate soil, disrupting beneficial microbial communities and entering the food web through agricultural products intended for human and animal consumption. In nature, mercury compounds interact with microbes in several ways. Certain microbes methylate Hg0 into MeHg, which increases environmental toxicity. However, most microbes are adversely affected by mercury ions as they disrupt cellular functions by binding to essential biomolecules. Mercury is particularly detrimental to a microbe’s ability to produce protease, an enzyme crucial for breaking down proteins into amino acids. Protease plays a significant role commercially in wastewater treatment, vacuum system maintenance, animal nutrition, soil health, and agricultural applications. Many commercial processes depend on non-denuded proteases for protein degradation. When microbes are utilized to produce protease for commercial applications, the presence of mercury in any form other than Hg0 can potentially diminish their functionality through protease disruption. Although not only the microbe’s ability to create and release protease is inhibited, but any extracellular fluid or soil borne protease is irreversibly denatured through mercuric interaction, particularly Hg2. In a mercury contaminated environment such as an industrial or mining area, some bacteria, fungi, and mold have adapted to transform mercury into its nontoxic elemental form. The merA and merB genes produce the enzymes; mercuric reductase, and organomercurial lyase, which convert toxic forms of mercury into elemental mercury. This process produces non soluble mercury which is easier to capture through filtration methods and lessens environmental discharge. The patented Mereduce TM technology fosters a microbe’s ability to create transformative enzymes for both microbial and protease protection. Through novel methods for downstream enzyme presentation, it creates an environment for the growth and adaptation of transformative microbes while generating active protease enzymes.
Trials of Christian Martyrs. Case Study: De Perpetuae et Felicitatis Martyrio
A person who dies for his religious faith is called a martyr or a martyr, but the term martyr also applies to those who give their lives for another cause, considered noble, such as those who die for their country in wartime. Martyrdom is the suffering, torment, torture, or death endured by someone for his ideas or beliefs. The term martyr is used by extension and in other forms, martyr of the fatherland, martyr of work, to honor specially performed acts of heroism. The word “martyr” is of Greek origin and denotes someone who confessed Christ by his own death. In the first phase, the title of martyr was used with reference to the apostles while they were still alive, then it was extended to all those who demonstrated faith, and finally it was used for those who died as a result of persecution.
I was born in a small city surrounded by red pines in Heilongjiang Province, in the northeastern part of China. The winters there are long, with snow covering the mountains and forests, and the world is always a vast expanse of white, as if people are destined to be accompanied by silence. My father was a teacher at the local teachers’ college, teaching Chinese classical literature and conducting research.
Sustainable Peatland Management in Oil Palm Plantation: Challengingbut Manageable
The rapid expansion of oil palm plantations across tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia has intensified environmental degradation, including peat subsidence, CO₂ emissions, and recurrent fires. These issues have triggered growing academic and policy interest in sustainable peatland management, especially given the ecological fragility and socio-political complexity of plantation landscapes. This study aims to systematically synthesize scholarly evidence on the effectiveness, limitations, and interconnections of current sustainability strategies in hydrological control, fire prevention, land use planning, governance, and community engagement. This research employs a qualitative Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach, guided by the PRISMA protocol. Data were collected through structured searches in the ScienceDirect database using targeted Boolean keywords. A total of 36 peerreviewed articles published between 2019 and 2025 were selected based on thematic relevance, open-access availability, and methodological rigor. All references were organized using Mendeley Desktop to ensure traceability and citation integrity. Data analysis involved thematic coding and content interpretation to identify cross-cutting patterns and strategic interactions. The results highlight that integrated water table control, participatory fire mitigation, context-sensitive spatial planning, and inclusive governance frameworks are essential pillars of sustainable peatland systems. However, gaps persist in enforcement capacity, cross-sectoral coordination, and long-term community incentives. In conclusion, sustainability in peat-based oil palm landscapes is attainable through multi-level alignment of ecological, technical, and institutional strategies. Future studies should explore the scalability of locally adapted interventions and long-term monitoring frameworks across diverse peatland geographies.
Enabling the Circular-Bioeconomy through Palm Oil Biomass: AReview of Industrial Innovations, Policy Frameworks, and MarketIntegration
The transition toward a circular-bioeconomy has positioned palm oil biomass as a pivotal renewable resource for achieving sustainable industrial transformation and low-carbon development. Yet, realizing this transition requires a systemic understanding of how technological, institutional, and market mechanisms interact to enable circularity across the palm oil value chain. This study aims to (1) synthesize technological and industrial innovation pathways driving palm biomass valorisation; (2) analyze the role of policy and governance instruments in supporting sustainable market integration; and (3) identify critical gaps and opportunities for advancing circular-bioeconomic transitions in the palm oil sector. Using a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach, data were systematically collected from the Scopus database through a multi-stage keyword refinement process. The initial query (Palm Oil AND Circular Economy) yielded 231 results, refined through specific terms related to biomass valorisation, innovation, and sustainability. Following the exclusion of irrelevant items, the restriction to publications from 2021–2025, and the restriction to open-access and open-archive sources, 38 peer-reviewed articles were retained for qualitative synthesis. Analytical procedures involved thematic coding and comparative interpretation to map interdisciplinary linkages among technological, institutional, and market domains. Findings reveal that integrated biorefinery technologies, digital traceability platforms, and AI-assisted optimization systems enhance resource efficiency and industrial circularity. However, fragmented regulatory frameworks, limited infrastructure, and investment asymmetry remain key constraints to large-scale adoption. The study concludes that achieving a circular-bioeconomy through palm oil biomass valorisation requires coordinated progress across technological innovation, institutional alignment, and market transformation. Future research should advance quantitative modeling, life-cycle assessment, and policy harmonization strategies to accelerate regional bioeconomic implementation.
A Review of Decarbonization Strategies in Oil Palm Plantations Toward Net-Zero Emissions
Decarbonizing oil palm plantations has become increasingly critical as global climate commitments intensify and agricultural supply chains face growing pressure to align with net-zero emission targets. Recent scientific literature highlights a wide range of technological, ecological, and governance-based mitigation approaches, yet these findings remain fragmented across disciplines, limiting the sector’s ability to identify strategies with the highest carbon-reduction potential. This study addresses this gap by conducting a systematic literature review aimed at (1) identifying and classifying the dominant decarbonization strategies implemented in oil palm plantations, and (2) evaluating their relative significance, mitigation potential, and practical feasibility across diverse production contexts. This research adopts a qualitative Systematic Literature Review (SLR) design following the PRISMA protocol. Data were gathered exclusively from peer-reviewed journal articles indexed in Scopus, using structured keyword refinement and multi-stage inclusion criteria to ensure thematic relevance. A total of 39 publications met all eligibility requirements and were analyzed through thematic synthesis. Data analysis involved qualitative coding, cross-study comparison, and extraction of quantitative indicators related to emissions, mitigation performance, and implementation considerations. The findings reveal five dominant decarbonization pathways: methane mitigation from palm oil mill effluent, energy-efficiency improvements, biomass-based fuel substitution, landscape-level carbon sequestration, and digital MRV enhancement supported by governance instruments. Methane mitigation demonstrates the highest reduction potential, followed by energy transformation and peatland restoration. The review concludes that integrated, multi-dimensional approaches are necessary to achieve netzero trajectories. Future studies should explore hybrid decarbonization models, long-term MRV performance, and the inclusion of smallholders in low-carbon transition frameworks.
Variability in the Duration of Rains and Other Elements of the RainCourse
Rains of varying intensity and duration have different effects on the water balance of territories and economic indicators of regional development. The paper examines the features of changes in time and in various physical and geographical conditions of the duration of rains and the position of the maximum intensity during rain. It is shown that in mountainous areas there is more precipitation, both in quantity and frequency.The research used methods of mathematical statistics and graphical analysis.In general, for all four meteorological stations, which were studied, a similar distribution of the probability of occurrence of rains with a given duration is characteristic. Rains lasting more than 400-500 minutes occur in less than 10% of all meteorological stations. For rains lasting less than 300 minutes, there is a difference in the probability of occurrence of 5-10% between meteorological stations. Some limits of air humidity, air temperature and soil surface at which rain was not observed are determined, what is important when forecasting. Analysis of the influence of meteorological parameters on the duration of rains and the position of the maximum intensity during rain shows that at an average relative humidity of less than 45-50 percent there was practically no rain, and at a minimum relative humidity of less 30% as well. Air temperature (average, maximum and minimum) of 20-25 °C is critical, above which rains lasting more than 400-500 minutes did not occur. The longest rains are observed at low average daily air temperatures, less than 10 °C. At a minimum soil temperature of 20 °C and above, rains are practically not observed (4 cases out of 989). At an absolute maximum soil surface temperature of more than 50 °C, prolonged rains of more than 500 minutes are also practically not observed.
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research
Research on Control Technologies for Hydrogen Sulfide BearingShale Oil Wells in China’s Shengli Oilfield
Pyrite is abundant in some shale oil blocks of the Shengli Oilfield, China. During the development process, the high-temperature and high-pressure formation environment induces a thermochemical reaction between pyrite and hydrocarbons, generating and releasing hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). This poses a serious threat to safe production, environmental protection, and crude oil quality. This paper provides an in-depth analysis of the formation mechanism of hydrogen sulfide in shale formations, identifying the high-temperature pyrolysis of pyrite in a closed system as the primary sulfur source. To address this issue, a high-temperature desulfurizer suitable for shale oil wells has been developed. This desulfurizer exhibits excellent characteristics, including hightemperature resistance (adaptable to formation temperatures), rapid reaction, high desulfurization efficiency, large sulfur capacity, and partial regenerability. By injecting the desulfurizer into the formation alongside fracturing fluid during the fracturing process, source control and treatment of hydrogen sulfide are achieved. Successful field applications in five wells demonstrate that this technology significantly reduces hydrogen sulfide concentrations during well opening and production, yielding effective treatment results. It provides an efficient technical approach for the safe and high-efficiency development of similar hydrogen sulfide-bearing shale oil reservoirs.
Impact Assessment of Cloud Seeding in Karnataka, India
The State of Karnataka in Southern India falls in the rain shadow region and is highly prone to drought conditions. Most of the monsoon rainfall occurs in the months of June and August with few rainy days during September to December. The State experienced severe rainfall deficiency in the years of 2017 and 2019 with limited rainfall in most parts of the State. The cloud seeding exercise was taken up by the State Government in both years to mitigate the adverse impact. Two cloud seeding aircrafts (Beach Aircraft King Air 200) of Weather Modification INC, USA with meteorological instruments and cloud seeding equipment were operated. Daily advisory on convective cloud development and potential seeding locations was generated using real time data from 3 Doppler Weather radars, Radio Sonde ascents, INSAT satellite data and high-resolution model runs by India Meteorological Department and Space Applications Centre (ISRO). Real time aircraft observations of cloud temperature, liquid water content and updraft winds helped to target potential clouds for hygroscopic and glaciogenic seeding. The data from the dense rainguage network of over 6000 automatic and telemetric rainguages operated by the Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre was utilized to study the impact of cloud seeding operations. Evaluation of the seeding has been carried out using spatial and statistical methods. The quantitative results indicate positive impact of cloud seeding leading to 10-15 % increase in rainfall with improved geographical spread. Thus cloud seeding carried out in a controlled and systematic basis can thus emerge as a viable support to mitigate recurrent drought hit areas. This paper presents the results of the evaluation study.
Global Green Betrayal: Excuses Are Plenty, Forests Empty, and TruthOverlooked
Global outrage over COP30’s Amazon tree-felling mirrors a far broader crisis, as deforestation accelerates across continents and ecosystems collapse under human pressure. Biodiversity is plummeting at record speed, with wildlife abundance down nearly three-quarters and economic losses reaching trillions annually. Agricultural expansion, industrial extraction, climate-driven wildfires, and conflict now drive unprecedented forest destruction, especially in tropical regions. Together, these forces push the planet toward an ecological breaking point, raising an urgent action demanded to safeguard the world’s remaining forests before they are lost forever.
Genetic Studies on Mealiness, Dry Matter, Root Number and FreshRoot Yield, in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
Breeding for increased mealiness, number of roots, dry matter content and good fresh root yield enhancing the production of cassava to meet consumer acceptance for cassava storage root and its products has become the next challenge in cassava breeding in Sierra Leone. These traits are essential for cassava production as they are the most preferred traits for end-use consumption. Data were subjected to statistical analyses using SAS version 9.3. Analytical tools employed included general analysis of variance and diallel analysis of variance for combining abilities and estimates. The mean performance for number of roots per plant ranged from 4.85 to 2.50 for crosses IBA 120004 x I088693 and IBA120004 x TMEB1 with a grand mean of 3.59, while the mean performance for fresh root yield ranged from a highest of 0.80kg/plant, I9100416 x I088693 to 0.23kg/plant UBJ120003 x IBA 120004. Significant differences were observed among the 65 F1 crosses for dry matter (P < 0.01); number of storage roots per family and fresh root yield per family at P < 0.05. General combining ability (GCA) variance was significant only for fresh root yield per family at P < 0.05 whereas specific combining ability (SCA) variance were significant for dry matter (P < 0.05) and number of storage roots at P < 0.01 and fresh root yield at P < 0.05. High variability for different traits had also been reported in cassava. The mean FRSY and SRN at the seedling evaluation stage in this study were lower than those reported by Ojulong et al., Mtunda and Tumuhimbise et al., Highest magnitude of positive and significant SCA effects was shown by F1 progenies from crosses UBJ120003 x UCC2001(246), UBJ120003 x TMEB693, UBJ120003 x TMEB 419, UBJ120003 x MM961871, UBJ120003 x I088693, TMEB419 x I088747, TMEB419 x I011368, MM961871 x I9100416, IBA120004 x I088747, IBA 120004 x I088693, IBA961165 x I088693, IBA 961165 x I088693, and I9100416 x I088693. Combining ability analysis for storage root related traits at this early stage was possible because of the high SRN produced by the seedling plants ranging from 1 to 23 storage roots plant−1. his study clearly demonstrates that it is possible to conduct combining ability analysis for storage root related traits at the seedling stage of cassava breeding. This high SRN was attributed to the method that was used in raising seedlings combined with good growing conditions in Sierra Leone. Findings of this study also demonstrated that it is possible to simultaneously select for yield and quality traits, such as DMC at the seedling stage using simple statistical methods. It was also revealed that breeding strategies for crop improvement should exploit the advantage of both additive and non-additive gene action to be able to achieve the different levels of stages in improving most of these studied traits.
Enhancing Geospatial Data Integration and Completeness throughSemantic Web and Linked Open Data
This paper investigates methods for improving the integration and completeness of heterogeneous geospatial datasets using Semantic Web technologies and Linked Open Data. Interoperability issues, fragmented data sources, and incomplete datasets remain persistent challenges in the geospatial domain—often exacerbated by proprietary formats and lack of coordination among stakeholders. To address these, we propose an ontology-based approach built on the principles of knowledge representation and reasoning. By leveraging the Universal Spatial Knowledge Base (USKB) and rulebased inference mechanisms, our method facilitates semantic interoperability and supports completeness analysis across diverse data sources. As a demonstration of this approach, we present SPALOD (Spatial Data Management with Semantic Web Technology and Linked Open Data), a platform designed to integrate and manage complex geospatial datasets. SPALOD illustrates how semantic reasoning can ensure consistent data quality, enhance interoperability, and enable seamless integration across systems. Our results underline the feasibility and impact of semantic-enriched data management strategies in the geospatial context, offering a scalable solution for harmonizing and enriching spatial information about bicycle network.
The Zero-dimensional Energy Balance Model is introduced to calculate courses of global mean temperature increases for the stationary higher limit values of 1.5 0C, 2.0 0C and 3.0 0C compared to the pre-industrial time. In particular, mean stationary temperatures for sea surface, land surface and entire surface of the earth are calculated and compared, also with temperature anomalies. The problem of the Carbon budget will be discussed. Its solution is a real challenge for mankind.
Research on the Development of a Teaching Model in MedicalEducation Based on Principles of Chemical Reaction Engineering
This study addresses the core challenges in current medical education–fragmentation of knowledge, disconnection of clinical thinking, and low transformation efficiency–by innovatively proposing and constructing a “Three-Stage Catalytic” teaching model for medical education based on principles from chemical reaction engineering. Adopting an interdisciplinary integration perspective, the research systematically demonstrates the intrinsic mapping relationship between the chemical reaction engineering “input-reaction-output” model and its core elements (reactant concentration, activation energy, catalyst efficacy, transfer efficiency) and the three stages of medical education: knowledge internalization, skill transfer, and catalysis.
Environmental Clearance Process: The Role of Social ImpactAssessment (SIA) in Development Projects
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process is a multidisciplinary tool designed to ensure that environmental and social considerations are integrated into decision-making for development projects. While traditionally focused on biophysical impacts, the inclusion of Social Impact Assessment (SIA) has become increasingly vital. SIA examines the consequences of interventions on human populations, including changes in livelihoods, community cohesion, cultural practices, and social well-being. This paper explores the significance of SIA as an integral component of EIA, with reference to the Indian regulatory framework while situating the discussion within a global context. It highlights key principles, methods, and processes of SIA and emphasizes its role in fostering equitable and sustainable development. The paper concludes that integrating SIA into EIA not only strengthens environmental governance but also ensures inclusive growth and resilience for future generations.
Managing Overall Performance within Metropolises or How toRespond to Society’s Values
In the face of increasing awareness of societal and environmental issues, local authorities, who are closest to the citizens, must set an example and instills values in all the actors of the territory. In terms of SAR, it is the companies that have been the most studied in recent years. Local and regional authorities must be accountable and, in order to do so, must have better governance and management. Metropolises were created since 2012 to decentralize state powers. A new organization and governance have been set up within the territories. In fact, metropolises are more or less important intercommunal ties and they must operate considering the expectations of each city.
Evolution of Black Hole Binary - From Birth to Final Coalescence
This paper starts with the birth of Black Hole Binaries through major and minor mergers of galaxies accompanied with gravitational wave radiation. The formation of loss cone is described and if this loss cone is not replenished then the last parsec stalling of the merging BlackHole occurs. Spherical Symmetry, axi-symmetry and triaxial symmetry model of galaxies is described. Triaxiality ensures that loss cone is replenished and last parsec problem does not arise. Gravitational Wave Emission and their frequency range is described. Notable Black Hole Binaries are described. A century of Gravitational Wave Detection is described with the testing of Strong Equivalence Principle. Nano-Hz gravitational wave detection and their results are described.